Glossary

A-B-C- ~ An abbreviation for the words Antecedent- Behavior- Consequence. The term is used to describe the relationship between what happens before a response and what happens after a response. A-B-C relations are used to look for patterns in the occurrence of a behavioral response and environmental events.

Acquisition ~ The process in which a student learns a new behavior through reinforcement. Data collected on the number of trials, accuracy of responses during training, and the length of time it takes for the skill to be learned informs the interventionist as to whether the teaching procedures being used need to be adjusted. Acquisition trials refer to specific instances of teaching in which new skills are actively being taught.

Audience ~ The discriminative stimuli that set the occasions on which verbal behavior has consequences. Such stimuli are usually listeners that reinforce speakers in a precise manner.

Autoclitic ~ A unit of verbal behavior that depends on other verbal behavior for its occurrence. Autoclitics modify the effects of that other verbal behavior on the listener.

Automatic reinforcement ~ Reinforcement that is not dependent upon other people for its delivery. The response generates its own reinforcement. For individuals with autism, the relative level of difficulty related to behaviors that involve socially mediated reinforcement may make the occurrence of behaviors that are maintained by automatic reinforcement (do not involve other people) more frequent. Some examples of behaviors that are usually maintained by automatic behavior include eating food, flicking ones fingers in front of a light, scratching an itch.

Aversive Stimuli ~ A stimulus that either decreases the frequency of a response if it occurs as a consequence or increases the occurrence of behaviors that serve to remove the stimulus (evokes escape responses) if it occurs as an antecedent. Note that aversive stimuli are characterized not by their form but rather by their effect on behavior.

Behavior ~ This term refers to some action made by an individual. It is the movement of a person in their environment. Behavior is observable; it has physical characteristics, it happens in relation to environmental events, and occurs dynamically in relation to measures of time.

Behavior chain ~ A series of behavioral responses that are linked together so that the reinforcement for one behavior serves as a discriminative stimulus for the next behavior. The individual responses are chained together in this manner until some ultimate reinforcing event occurs.

Card Sort Method ~ A method of organizing teaching materials within the intensive teaching procedures for verbal behavior presented within this training. The card sort method generally involves writing on 3 x 5 inch index cards the discriminative stimulus to be presented to the student (often the side facing the student will be a picture.) The cards are often shuffled to allow random distribution. The cards are marked by verbal operant and whether the item is a maintenance or teaching item. As the items are presented the cards are sorted into correct and incorrect responses

Chaining ~ A teaching procedure wherein one attempts to link various simple individual responses together to make one, longer complex behavior. Chaining refers to teaching the individual responses that make up a behavior chain. Teaching a student to complete the individual steps in sequence for “setting a table” is an example of chaining.

Check or Probe Trial ~ A discrete trial that generally occur several trials after a transfer trial. Check trials determine whether the response has been maintained across other demands and other responses. In a check trial, a target skill is presented without prompts.

Check Trial ~ Also referred to as a probe trial; a check trial is a discrete trial used to determine if transfer of stimulus control to an unprompted condition has been maintained following presentation of other trials (usually termed distractor trials). In other words you check to see if the student can still demonstrate the skill without being prompted after some different types of trials are presented.

Conditional discrimination ~ A response in which the antecedent condition involves two stimuli. Reinforcement is contingent upon responding only when both stimuli occur. For instance, the student selects a picture of a cat when both the picture of a cat and the verbal direction “get cat” are both present.

Conditioned Motivative Operation ~ A motivative operation that occurs in relation to a learned or conditioned reinforcer. There are several types of CMO including transitive motivative operation, reflexive motivative operation, and surrogate motivative operation. CMOs do not involve satiation or deprivation.

Conditioned Motivative Operation-reflexive (CMO-r) ~ A motivative operation that occurs when the presentation of a stimulus is correlated with an increase in the value of removing the stimulus. Reflexive motivative operations are warning signals. When a CMO-r is in effect, it leads to a student seeking negative reinforcer (the removal of some event.) In other words when a situation suggests worsening conditions, the value of escaping the situation increases and therefore the student will engage in any behavior that leads to an end of the worsening condition. Some examples of reflexive motivative operations might include, a student is asked to perform a difficult task thus the student will likely be motivated to avoid the teacher in order to get out of doing the task; an timer that is about to go off signals that a student must move from some preferred activity to a lesser preferred task will lead to the student trying to turn the timer off before it rings in order to avid having to make the transition.

Conditioned Motivative Operation-Surrogate (CMO-s) ~ A motivative operation that occurs upon presentation of a stimulus that in the past has been paired with some other stimulus. The presentation of the first stimulus increases the value of the second stimulus. For instance a student upon hearing a song from some movie may be motivated to watch that movie and will therefore be more likely to ask for the DVD or to look for the DVD.

Conditioned Motivative Operation-Transitive (CMO-t) ~ A motivative operation that occurs when the presentation of one stimulus is correlated with an increase in the value of some other stimulus. In other words, the presentation of some event leads to the student doing something to make another event occur. Some examples might include, a student being asked to write their name will likely make a pencil more valuable (and will also lead to the student looking for or asking for a pencil); a student who is given a treat in a container that is difficult to open will likely have a need to have the container opened (and will likely lead to the student asking someone to open it.)

Conditioned Reinforcer ~ A stimuli that was previously neutral (has not had an effect on the future probability of behavior) but has become a reinforcer through being paired with other stimuli that already have reinforcing value. Conditioned reinforcers are often referred to as learned reinforcers.

Consequence ~ Events which occur immediately following a particular response. Consequences, like behavior, must be identified in observable terms. They are an aspect of the physical and/or social environment. Consequent events may or may not have behavior-altering properties; in other words consequences may increase the future frequency of behavior, decrease the future frequency of behavior or have no impact on the future frequency of behavior.

Contingency ~ A dependent relationship between behavior and stimuli. It can be stated in “if…then…” descriptions.

Continuous Schedule of Reinforcement ~ A schedule of reinforcement in which every response is reinforced. Continuous schedules of reinforcement are associated with rapid learning but are more prone to extinction.

Data ~ Information gathered to guide the decision-making progress or to describe various phenomena including behavior. Data is obtained through the process of observation and recording events. ABA relies upon data-based decision making. Teaching and behavior management programs are based upon information that is systematically gathered during the teaching/working process.

Data-Based Decision Making ~ Refers to the fact that teaching and behavior management decisions are based upon information that is systematically gathered during the teaching/ intervention process. Data-based decisions are best made by reviewing a visual display of data. Changes in programming are based on some predetermined set of decision rules. For instance, if no progress is seen in the data path for three consecutive sessions, a change in the teaching procedures will be made.

Delta Stimuli ~ A change in the environment that has been paired with the unavailability of reinforcement. In non-technical words it is an antecedent that signals that reinforcement is not available.

Deprivation ~ The period of time in which a primary or unlearned reinforcer has not been available. Deprivation can be used to increase the potency of a reinforcer by not delivering it to the individual for a period of time. Food, for one instance, will become more valuable as a reinforcer if a person has not eaten for some time. Contrast with satiation.

Differential reinforcement ~ Reinforcement of some responses and not others. Differential reinforcement is a critical component of the shaping process.

Dimensions of behavior ~ Measurable aspects of behavior including rate, duration, force or magnitude, latency, or inter-response time

Direct Instruction ~ A form of teaching that has its origins in behavioral principles. Students are taught individually or in groups that are made up of students at roughly the same academic level; there is scripted and fast-paced presentation of materials; students respond as a group as well as individually; and there is a very high degree of student-instructor interaction with error correction and positive reinforcement for correct responding. There is an emphasis on very well designed and researched modules that students must master before moving on to the next level (see work by Engleman and Carnine).

Discrete Trial Teaching ~ Discrete trial teaching is the three-term contingency (A-B-C) relationship as applied to teaching new skills. It is “discrete” because each trial involves a clear presentation of a single response opportunity, clearly defined response criteria, and set procedures for teaching consequences in the event that the target response occurs or does not occur. Each “trial” is a separate attempt to teach a new behavior or reinforce a previously learned behavior.

Discriminative Stimulus ( Sd ) ~ A stimulus that is conditioned to elicit a particular response due to its history of being paired with the availability of reinforcement. Discriminative stimuli occur in the antecedent condition and are associated with the availability of reinforcement. For example, a refrigerator door may be stimulus that evokes “opening the refrigerator door” behavior because the refrigerator likely contains food that serves as a reinforcer.

Distracter Trial ~ A discrete trial that occurs between a teaching or transfer trial and either a check trial or a second teaching trial. Distracter trials are used in order to assist the child in maintaining a response across other demands and other responses. Distracter trials generally involve other type of responses than the item that is being taught. Check trials are most often “easy” trials.

Easy trial ~ Any trial on which a student performs without a prompt. Easy trials involve use of a 2-3 second time delay procedure for the model presented in this training.

Echoic ~ Verbal behavior wherein a verbal stimulus evokes a verbal response and the stimulus and response share point to point correspondence. In other words, the response “echoes” or duplicates the stimulus.

Edible Reinforcers ~ Food items that may be used as reinforcers in teaching programs. Edible reinforcers are just one class of reinforcer that may be used in a teaching program. Edible reinforcers are usually used in conjunction with other reinforcers such as verbal praise, attention, and tokens, and are faded as the student acquires other reinforcers.

Elicit ~ A term associated with respondent or classical conditioning. Refers to the effect of stimuli which are followed by reflexive behaviors.

Emit ~ A term associated with operant conditioning. Refers to the act of an organism behaving as a result of past consequences.

Error Correction ~ Procedures that are used when a student responds incorrectly, or is non-responsive. There are multiple error correction procedures. In the error correction procedure presented in this training, the direction is repeated, followed by a zero second prompt for the child to respond correctly. Error correction trials are then followed by a transfer trial.

Errorless Learning ~ The process by which student errors are reduced or eliminated by systematically applying prompting and prompt fading strategies. Students are provided prompts that insure an error does not occur and then learning is transferred to an unprompted trial. In general, the student is prevented from making an incorrect response in the first place. This increases the probability that the student will have more opportunities to make a correct response and receive reinforcement.

Extinction ~ A decrease or cessation in the frequency of responding due to a cessation in the occurrence of reinforcement. It is the process by which a response in no longer paired with presentation of a reinforcing event. Extinction is a schedule of reinforcement in which the behavior is never reinforced.

Extinction Burst ~ A phenomenon wherein the frequency of a behavior increases for some period (usually a brief period) following a period of time in which the behavior is not reinforced. For problem behavior reduction programs that use extinction, the possibility of an extinctin burst must be planned for. During the burst, the behavior will temporarily increase in frequency, magnitude, and variability.

Fading ~ A gradual decrease in the observable aspects of a stimulus. Fading is often used as procedure to reduce the level of prompt during instruction.

Fluency ~ A characteristic of responses in which accurate responses are emitted at a relatively high rate. Fluency is a measure of accuracy and speed. The degree to which a skill is fluent may predict the degree to which the skill will be retained and generalized, how strongly the response will occur over time, and the overall ease of responding

Frequency ~ Refers to the number of target responses counted. For example, “the student made seven initiations to his peers.”

Functional Analysis ~ A process in which the class of reinforcers maintaining a particular response or response class is identified. Functional analysis helps to answer questions such as “why does that response occur?” or “under what conditions is that response more likely?”

Generalization ~ Speaking broadly, generalization refers to variation in either response or setting. We strive to generalize across time, setting, people, and instructional materials.

Graphing ~ The representation of data on a grid. When behaviors are represented on a graph they allow visual analysis. In other words the person viewing the graph can easily make a judgment regarding changes in a pattern of behavior over time. Graphs make for easy summarization of trend, level, and variability in behavior. Graphs are used to assess progress in learning and to make teaching/ treatment decisions.

Hard trial ~ Any trial on which a student has not been able to perform without a prompt. Hard trials involve use of a 0 second time delay procedure for the model presented in this training.

Imitation ~ To duplicate observed behavior. Motor imitation involves duplicating another person’s actions. Echoic behavior is a verbal form of imitation.

Incidental Teaching ~ Incidental teaching refers to teaching that involves naturally occurring opportunities to teach, often with student-initiated activities. Incidental teaching, while often involving systematic teacher responses to student behavior, is not carefully planned or scripted.

Intermittent Schedule of reinforcement ~ A schedule of reinforcement in which each not all responses are reinforced. Reinforcement is provided only to some instances of the response.

Inter-trial Interval ~ A measure of temporal duration between the presentation of one trial and the presentation of the next trial. In other words, it is a measure of how much time occurs between trials.

Intraverbal ~ Verbal behavior in which a verbal stimulus evokes a verbal response and the stimulus and response do not share point to point correspondence. In other words the response is not the same as the stimulus. Common names for intraverbal responses may include answering questions, word- associations, fill-ins, conversational responses, etc.

Latency ~ A measure of time between the presentation of a discriminative stimulus and the occurrence of a response or between the occurrence of a response and the presentation of a consequent stimulus (either a reinforcement or punishment.)

Listener ~ A person who responds to verbal behavior

Listener Response ~ Behavior of a person responding to another person’s verbal behavior. Listener responses are acquired through experience and are often highly specified. Listener responses are often called “receptive language.”

Maintenance Trial ~ Discrete trials involving a stimulus that is associated with a response that has been correctly emitted by the student on past trials. It is a trial for a skill that is already “acquired” versus a skill that is still being taught. Maintenance trials are run in order to help the student learn to consistently give the response (in common terms, to help the student ‘remember’ the response.)

Mand ~ Verbal behavior wherein a motivative operation occurs in the antecedent condition, the response specifies its reinforcer, and the response is maintained by consequences that involve direct reinforcement (delivery of what has been specified). Common terms for mands might include ask, demand, request, command, question, etc.

Matching law ~ A term for the relationship between the probability of a response and the degree to which that response has been reinforced. Specifically, during concurrent schedules of reinforcement, a behavior will be emitted at a ratio that is equivalent to its schedule of reinforcement. Some characteristics of reinforcement that can effect response probability are:

Value of reinforcement ~ The degree to which a stimulus is likely to evoke behaviors that result in the delivery or presence of that stimulus. In other words, the strength of the motivative operation in relation to a particular reinforcer will predict the likelihood of a response. For instance, if a person is thirsty, they will be more likely to engage in behaviors that are reinforced by drinking than they will be to engage in behaviors that are reinforced by food.

Response effort ~ If two responses can result in reinforcement, the one that involves less physical effort will be more probable. For instance, if one is motivated to change channels on a TV, pressing the remote control button will be more likely than walking to the set to press the control panel button.

Ratio of reinforcement ~ If two responses result in the same reinforcer, but one response obtains reinforcers more often, that response will be more likely to occur. For instance, although a person may sometimes be offered food at a friend’s house, if the person is really hungry they will be more likely to go to a store or a restaurant where food is sure to be available.

Magnitude of reinforcement ~ If two responses both access the same reinforcer, but one response obtains a greater amount of the reinforcer, that response will be more likely. For instance, if a high school student has a chance to do odd jobs at one home and be paid $5.00 or to do the same odd jobs at another home for $7.00 and all else is equal, the student will be more likely to work at the home that pays $7.00.

Immediacy of reinforcement ~ If two responses both access the same reinforcer, but one response is delivered more immediately following the response, that response will be more likely. For instance, if a child asks both his mother and his father for a ball; the father tells the child to wait and then later gives the ball to the child and plays with the child. The mother on the other hand immediately gives the ball and plays with child. The child will be more likely to ask the mother for the ball in the future.

Matching to Sample ~ A response involving a conditional discrimination. In the presence of one stimulus the student selects another stimulus which shares some or all characteristics.

Most-to-least prompting ~ This term refers to a prompting and prompt fading strategy wherein one begins prompting at a level guaranteed to get the response to occur. You would fade the intensity of the prompt over time to avoid prompt dependency.

Motivative Operation ~ Sometimes abbreviated as MO, this term refers to an alteration of the environment that affects the power of other stimuli to serve as reinforcers and antecedent stimuli. Motivative operations alter the value of stimuli that serve as reinforcers and also evokes any behavior that has in the past been reinforced by those stimuli. Motivation in a behavioral model lies in the environment (for instance, a particular reinforcer may be valuable not because the student “wants it” but rather because the student has not had access to the item for a period of time). The value of events that may serve as reinforcers will vary according to the current strength of the motivative operation.

Naming Theory ~ According to Horne and Lowe (1996), naming is a circular relation among an object (or event), a particular speaker behavior, and the corresponding listener behavior.

Natural Environment Teaching ~ Sometimes abbreviated as NET, this term refers to a teaching approach where the child’s current activities and interests determine teaching strategies.

Negative reinforcement ~ A stimulus is removed following a given target behavior, this leads to an increase in the future probability of that target behavior. Describes a relationship between events in which the rate of a behavior’s occurrence increases when some (usually aversive or unpleasant) environmental condition is removed or reduced in intensity. It leads to an increase in the future probability of a given behavior. For example, if a student tantrums after the teacher asked him/her to perform a task, and the teacher withdraws the request as a result of the tantrum it is negative reinforcement. In such a case, the teacher has accidentally negatively reinforced the tantrum and unwittingly made it more likely to happen in the future.

Neutral Stimuli ~ A change in the environment that has no effect on the future frequency of behavior.

Operant Analysis ~ The process of classifying the contingencies between antecedent, response, and consequence. In operant analysis, the behavior of concern is maintained through its effect on the immediate environment. An analysis of the way behavior is changed through its consequences.

Pairing ~ The repeated occurrence of two stimuli close in time. In operant conditioning, when two stimuli are paired, they often develop similar effects on behavior (one stimuli may become a conditioned reinforcer.) Pairing can also occur in respondent conditioning.

Parity ~ The “automatic” shaping of verbal responses to match those of the other speakers in their verbal community. The speaker produces verbal behavior similar to the other speakers, mediated by their own repertoire as listener.

Positive reinforcement ~ A stimulus is presented following a given target behavior, this leads to an increase in the future probability of that target behavior. As with other consequences, it is important to remember that a stimulus is only a positive reinforcer if, when presented, it leads to an increase in the future probability of the behavior.

Precision Teaching ~ A method of instruction in which precise teaching behaviors and instructional methodologies are applied and continuously monitored and adjusted based on student performance. Students often self-monitor progress. Data in precision teaching programs are recorded and displayed on the standard celeration chart developed by Ogden Lindsley. Rate measurement is the central data in precision teaching.

Preference (Reinforcer) Assessment ~ A procedure to identify stimuli that may serve as reinforcers. Items or events are presented and the student’s response is observed and recorded. Items in which the student approaches, takes or remains in contact with for longer periods of time are likely to be stimuli that can serve as reinforcement. Some preference inventories are completed through third party rating scales, however, such rating scales usually are less reliable than observational preference assessments.

Primary reinforcer ~ A reinforcer that is effective without any prior learning (i.e. is in-born). Also known as unlearned reinforcer or unconditioned reinforcer.

Probe ~ A brief assessment of learning for a specific teaching target. Generally in a probe an unprompted learning trial is presented and the student’s response is recorded. A cold probe involves presenting the probe trial following a period in which the student has not had exposure to the teaching procedure. Generally cold probes are recorded on a student’s first response to an item each day.

Prompts ~ Prompts are ancillary antecedent stimuli that insure that a particular response will occur. In other words, prompts make the occurrence of the target behavior more likely. When prompts are used, procedures to fade the prompts need to be implemented. In the model proposed in this training, transfer trials are used to fade prompts. During instruction, the prompt occurs as part of the antecedent condition.

Punishment ~ A stimulus that occurs immediately following a particular response that decreases the future probability of that response in similar conditions. Punishment if a consequence that decreases the frequency of the behavior that precedes it. Punishment, like reinforcement, is not defined by its form but rather by its effect on behavior.

Rate ~ A measure of frequency across a specific period of time. Rate is usually recorded in number of responses within a set period of time as in “number of responses per minute.” For example, a child initiates interactions with other children seven times per hour.

Reinforcement ~ A consequence that increases the future probability of the behavior that immediately preceded it. The only way a reinforcer can be identified is by the effect that the stimulus has on future behavior.

Response ~ Another term for behavior, often used to describe the occurrence of a behavior in relation to particular environmental events (stimuli)

Response Form ~ The movements that are used to form a response; the dimensions of particular behavior

Response product ~ The changes in the environment that occur as a result of a behavior. Movement, for instance may produce a visual response product ( an observer can see the movements); speech may produce an auditory response product ( a listener can hear what is spoken.) Generally in verbal behavior the listener responds to the response products of a speaker and not the actual behavior.

Run-Through ~ A series of discrete trials that are run consecutively in which the consequence of one trial is reinforced by the presentation of the next trial. The consecutive trials serve as reinforcement because the student has been thought that cooperative performance leads to more frequent reinforcement. A run through ends with the last trial (usually a check trial) followed by delivery of a reinforcing item or activity.

Satiation ~ A physiological phenomena in which contact with a reinforcer is extinguished due to a level of ingestion that does not allow further absorption. In common terms, satiation is synonymous with “being full”. Although some people describe the weakening effect of time spent interacting with a conditioned reinforcer (for example, a child “getting tired of playing with a toy”) as satiation, such weakening effects are better described as habituation.

Selection-Based Verbal Behavior ~ Verbal behavior in which the response varies only through the nature of a selected stimulus. The general topography of the behavior emitted does not vary. Selection based verbal behavior includes picture selection systems and augmentative devices in which the speaker touches icons on a screen.

Schedule of Reinforcement ~ Schedules of reinforcement specify how often particular reinforcers will result in reinforcement. Remember that not every response needs to be reinforced in order to affect future frequency of responding. Both planned and naturally occurring schedules of reinforcement can be described in terms of how much time passes before availability of reinforcement (interval schedules) or how many responses must occur before availability of reinforcement (ratio schedules) Shaping ~ Process used to create new behavior by differentially reinforcing successive approximations to a desired behavior (the target response). Shaping involve defining the sequences of movement necessary to complete some target behavior. At first gross approximations to the target behavior are reinforced, then those responses are put on extinction (not reinforced) and only slightly better approximations to the desired behavior are reinforced. This process continues until only the final target behavior is reinforced.

Social reinforcers ~ Reinforcers that consist of interactions with other individuals (for example, high five, thumbs up, wink).

Socially mediated reinforcers ~ Any reinforcer that is delivered as the result of actions of another person. Socially mediated reinforcement can be contrasted with automatic reinforcement.

Speaker ~ The person who emits verbal behavior.

Tact ~ Verbal behavior wherein a non-verbal stimulus evokes a verbal response. The behavior is reinforced by non-specific events. Common terms for tacts includes labeling or naming

Target Behavior ~ A response that is selected to be changed in some manner as part of a teaching program. It is pattern of behavior we expect to be demonstrated a result of our teaching. The target behavior may be chosen in order to increase its frequency (an acquisition, fluency or maintenance program) or to decrease its frequency (a reductive program for problem behavior.) Target behaviors must be specifically defined in observable terms (as physical, measurable behaviors.)

Task Analysis ~ Used most often in discussions of chaining, this is a written list specifying the particular steps (series of responses) that must be completed (emitted) in order to perform a particular behavior. For instance, the steps in hand washing may be broken down into a sequence of individual behaviors such as pushing up long sleeves, turning on faucets, adjusting temperature level, wetting hands, putting soap on hands, etc. Depending on the nature of the task and the student’s learning history, one task may be analyzed to 10 steps or a 100 steps.

Teaching Trial ~ A discrete trial for a target behavior that is selected for acquisition (as opposed to a maintenance or fluency trial). In other words, a trial to teach a new skill. In the model proposed in this training a teaching trial involves an immediately prompted response (see 0 second prompt)

Time Delay ~ A time based procedure for fading prompts. The interval is set to determine the latency between presentation of a discriminative stimulus and presentation of a prompt. In other a child is given a direction and a period of time is set in which no prompt will be given. If the behavior does not occur within that time interval, the prompt is given. A graduated time delay procedure is one in which the interval between the discriminative stimulus and the prompt is gradually changed as the student is presented with teaching trials. Usually the interval is lengthened as the student has success responding.

0 second time delay ~ This refers to an immediate prompt. It is an example of a time delay interval within a graduated time delay procedure in which there is no interval of time between the presentation of a discriminative stimulus and a prompt. It is usually the first step in a graduated time delay procedure. In the prompt fading/errorless teaching model presented in this training a 0 second time delay occurs on trials that involve teaching a new skill or on trials in which previous performance required a prompt (a hard trial)

2-3 second time delay ~ This refers to a delay of 2 to 3 seconds after a direction is given before a prompt is delivered. It is an example of a time delay interval within a graduated time delay procedure in which there is a 2-3 second interval of time between the presentation of a discriminative stimulus and a prompt. Transfer trials are usually 2-3 second time delay trials. In the prompt fading/errorless teaching model presented in this training a 2-3 second time delay occurs on trials that involve presentation of task on which the student has previously performed without prompt (an easy trial)

Time-out from Positive Reinforcement ~ Often called “time out” for short. The general idea of time out is that a given reinforcer is removed for a short period of time, contingent upon some inappropriate behavior being emitted by an individual. While this can take the form of an individual having to go to a different setting (for example, the common “time out chair”), time out need not take this form, and there are may be reasons to avoid this use (e.g., accidentally reinforcing with attention, or accidentally reinforcing avoidance behavior). Time out can be accomplished within the given setting (e.g., a T.V. set is turned off for ten seconds following inappropriate hand flapping while watching). Although various formal procedures have been developed, any time reinforcement is not available for a period of time following an instance of problem behavior, time out is being used.

Topography ~ A description of the physical form of the behavior. Topographical descriptions often include describing what the behavior “looks like”: a description of the muscles used, the force of the movements, the time duration of the movements, the direction of the movements and so forth.

Topographical Verbal Behavior ~ Verbal behavior that varies in the form used across responses. The direction, force, duration, etc. of the action of the muscles used varies across responses. Topographical verbal behavior includes spoken language and sign language.

Transfer Trial ~ An unprompted trial that follows a prompted trial. The word transfer refers to the technical description of the “transfer of stimulus control”. In other words in the prompted trial both the environmental stimulus that controls the behavior (for instance a verbal direction) and the prompt (for instance a gesture such as a point) precede the response (in this case, the student following the direction). The transfer trial involves fading the prompt (eliminating the gesture or fading how much gesture is used) on the trial immediately following a prompted trial. Transfer trials transfer stimulus control to more independent levels of response.

Unconditioned Motivative Operation (UMO) ~ a motivative operation that occurs in relation to an unlearned reinforcer. UMOs usually involve satiation and deprivation.

Variable Ratio Schedule of Reinforcement ~ An intermittent schedule of reinforcement wherein reinforcement becomes available after an average number of responses. In other words the number of responses prior to reinforcement varies but on average occurs at a similar frequency (for instance, a behavior may be reinforced on a variable ratio of 10, abbreviated VR10, meaning that it may be reinforced on average one in ten times.) This is among the most powerful schedules of reinforcement for maintaining rapid responding and providing resistance to extinction.

Verbal Behavior ~ Behavior that is effective only through the mediation of another person who has been conditioned precisely in order to reinforce the behavior. Verbal behavior encompasses terms such as language, speech, talking, comprehension, memory, etc. However, verbal behavior involves an operant analysis of those behaviors that are reinforced by a listener. Verbal behavior can involve speaking but also includes sign language, writing, picture communication systems, Braille, and so forth.

Visual Prompt ~ An antecedent event that is visual and evokes a particular response. Visual prompts can include a border temporarily placed around a picture to be selected, an asterisk placed next to a word that is to be read, etc.

Vocal ~ Responses that involve movements of the lungs, larynx, tongue and lips in order to produce a sound (an auditory response product). Vocal responses can include talking out loud, babbling, screaming, singing, etc.